Centre of Migration Research Working Papers
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- ItemOrganised returns in the United Kingdom(Centre of Migration Research, 2026-03-09) Radziwinowiczówna, Agnieszka; Ośrodek Badań nad MigracjamiBrexit has fundamentally reshaped the United Kingdom’s immigration system, yet organised returns from the UK remain strikingly under-examined. As return practices have evolved following the end of EU free movement, there is a clear need for a systematic framework that can capture this complexity. This working paper responds to that gap by proposing a comprehensive catalogue of organised returns from the UK. I define organised return as the movement of a person out of the territory of a state to a country in which they previously resided, mediated by an institution external to the individual concerned. Organisation may involve financing, the coordination of travel logistics, persuading individuals to return, and extend to the use of direct coercive measures against the returning person. The paper identifies ten distinct types of organised return: administrative removal, deportation, the Early Removal Scheme, enforced return, the European Arrest Warrant, extradition (TaCA warrant), international reconnection, port return, transfer of sentenced persons, and voluntary return. For each category, the catalogue specifies the responsible authorities, affected populations, applicable re-entry bans, degrees of coercion, and the availability of official data. The paper also maps the relationships and overlaps between different return mechanisms, highlighting how they interact within the broader UK return system. Overall, the catalogue reveals a complex architecture involving multiple state and non-state actors across jurisdictions. It further shows that coercive and highly coercive forms of return predominate, leaving individuals with limited autonomy over their mobility.
- ItemPathways to European citizenship: a comparative case study of Spain and Poland(Ośrodek Badań nad Migracjami, 2026-01-05) Yela Trivino, Ricardo; University of WarsawThis working paper examines the processes by which third-country nationals can acquire Spanish or Polish citizenship. While both European Union countries provide expedited pathways for specific groups, these groups, the particular citizenship requirements, and the scale of naturalisation vary significantly. Although the analysis of citizenship pathways has received considerable academic attention, few studies adopt a comparative perspective. This study aims to bridge that knowledge gap by employing a comparative case study approach, utilising legal interpretive and descriptive statistical methods, covering the period from 2014 to 2023. It addresses key questions: What are the legal pathways for obtaining residency and acquiring citizenship in Spain and Poland? Which groups are granted expedited processes, and why? What are the similarities and differences in access to citizenship between the two countries? The research investigates the laws and economic and social factors that influence citizenship acquisition in both nations. Key findings suggest that Spain's high naturalisation rates are linked to a simplified naturalisation process, with an A2 language requirement, rooted in strong historical ties that benefit nationals from Ibero-American countries. In contrast, Poland's significantly lower naturalisation rates are attributed to more rigorous B1-level Polish language requirements, which pose considerable barriers, especially for non-Slavic speakers. Both countries apply ius sanguinis and offer expedited routes, such as Spain's reduced residency requirements for specific nationalities or Poland's “Pole's Card” and presidential grants. Ultimately, their distinct approaches to integration and language proficiency shape the accessibility of citizenship, leading to varying outcomes for immigrants
- ItemAlternative Organising: Women’s Strategies of Political Action and Care in the Belarusian Diaspora in Poland, Lithuania, and Georgia(Ośrodek Badań nad Migracjami, 2025-12-30) Zhukouskaya, Viktoria; École Normale Supérieure de Lyon, France; EMLYON Business School, FranceIn the aftermath of the 2020 presidential elections in Belarus and the ensuing political crisis, many women were forced into exile. This article explores how Belarusian women continue their engagement in political, socio-cultural, and economic initiatives abroad, often beyond the traditional frameworks of political participation. Drawing on feminist methodology by locating women’s voices as central to inform this research, 10 interviews with women from diasporas in Poland, Lithuania, and Georgia, and ethnographic observation were conducted in 2022. This research includes community support for both Belarusians and Ukrainians, cultural preservation, assistance to political prisoners and migrants, and educational and humanitarian initiatives. The article argues that women’s work in exile not only sustains diasporic life but also constitutes a meaningful form of resistance that challenges dominant notions of visibility, leadership, and political agency. I suggest operationalising non-mainstream political organising through the notion of social reproduction, extending it to the public political domain.
- ItemPolityka Polski wobec migracji z Białorusi po 2020 roku(Ośrodek Badań nad Migracjami, 2025-12-31) Lesińska, Magdalena; Ośrodek Badań nad Migracjami, Uniwersytet WarszawskiCelem raportu jest przedstawienie najważniejszych instrumentów prawnych i politycznych prowadzonych w ramach polityki migracyjnej Polski, z których korzystali obywatele Białorusi przyjeżdżający do naszego kraju. Migracje z Białorusi mają charakter mieszany (politycznoekonomiczny), a po roku 2020 przede wszystkim polityczny. W odpowiedzi na represje ze strony władz w Mińsku skierowane do społeczeństwa białoruskiego po sfałszowanych wyborach prezydenckich, władze polskie wprowadziły rozwiązania ułatwiające migrantom z Białorusi wjazd i osiedlenie się w Polsce. Raport składa się z dwóch części, w pierwszej przedstawiono charakterystykę migrantów z Białorusi na podstawie dostępnych danych oficjalnych (Urzędu ds. Cudzoziemców, Ministerstwa Spraw Zagranicznych) oraz wyników badań empirycznych (dostępnych wyników badań ankietowych). W drugiej opisano najważniejsze regulacje prawne i instrumenty polityczne adresowane do tej grupy, w tym wizy humanitarne, program Poland. Business Harbour oraz Kartę Polaka, które przyczyniły się do wyboru Polski jako celu przyjazdu i sprzyjały decyzji o osiedleniu się.
- ItemAlternative Organising: Women’s Strategies of Political Action and Care in the Belarusian Diaspora in Poland, Lithuania, and Georgia(Centre of Migration Research, 2025-08-07) Zhukouskaya, Viktoria; École Normale Supérieure de Lyon; Emlyon Business School, FranceIn the aftermath of the 2020 presidential elections in Belarus and the ensuing political crisis, many women were forced into exile. This article explores how Belarusian women continue their engagement in political, socio-cultural, and economic initiatives abroad, often beyond the traditional frameworks of political participation. Drawing on feminist methodology by locating women’s voices as central to inform this research, 10 interviews with women from diasporas in Poland, Lithuania, and Georgia, and ethnographic observation were conducted in 2022. This research includes community support for both Belarusians and Ukrainians, cultural preservation, assistance to political prisoners and migrants, and educational and humanitarian initiatives. The article argues that women’s work in exile not only sustains diasporic life but also constitutes a meaningful form of resistance that challenges dominant notions of visibility, leadership, and political agency. I suggest operationalising non-mainstream political organising through the notion of social reproduction, extending it to the public political domain.